In the human diet, meat and other animal products are an important dietary protein source. With a growing global population and socio-economic statuses evolving, the demand for animal products, particularly meat, is increasing.^[1]FAO (2016). Fishery and aquaculture statistics [Online]. Available from: www.fao.org/fishery/static/Yearbook/YB2016_USBcard/booklet/web_i9942t.pdf [Accessed: 5 November 2018]. Meat products are a group of food that is especially scrutinized because this group calls into question its effect on the environment^[2]Herrero, M., Henderson, B., Havlík, P., Thornton, P.K., Conant, R.T., Smith, P., Wirsenius, S., Hristov, A.N., Gerber, P.J., Gill, M., Butterbach-bahl, K., Valin, H., Garnett, T., Stehfest, E., Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Energy and Environment, Physical Resource Theory, Chalmers tekniska högskola & Institutionen för energioch miljö, Fysisk resursteori. (2016) ‘Greenhouse gas mitigation potentials in the livestock sector’, Nature Climate Change, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 452-461., animal welfare^[3]De Backer, C.J.S. & Hudders, L. (2015) ‘Meat morals: relationship between meat consumption consumer attitudes towards human and animal welfare and moral behavior’, Meat Science, vol. 99, pp. 68-74. and its impact on human health.^[4]World Cancer Research Fund (2018) Diet, nutrition, physical activity and colorectal cancer [Online]. Available from: www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Colorectal-cancer-report.pdf [Accessed: 5 November 2018].

Due to these and others concerns, researchers and chefs have been looking for alternatives to animal-based protein intake. Well-known alternatives are plant-based meat replacements or in some parts of the world, the consumption of insects. Aside from existing alternatives, scientists are trying to develop completely new alternatives like cultured meat, better known as lab-grown meat. Cultured meat is lab-grown muscle tissue, created from animal stem cells^[5]Post, M.J. (2012) ‘Cultured meat from stem cells: Challenges and prospects’, Meat Science, vol. 92, no. 3, pp. 297-301. and could possibly be a solution to some of the issues regarding meat consumption.

Cows

Meat

Animal Based Food Consumption

Meat can provide several amino acids and macronutrients that are part of a healthy diet. While in some parts of the world these and other nutrients are lacking within the average diet, in other parts of the world, these nutrients are consumed in abundance.^[6]Neumann, C., Demment, M.W., Maretzki, A., Drorbaugh, N. & Galvin, K. (2010). ‘The Livestock Revolution and Animal Source Food Consumption’ in Steinfeld H., Mooney H., Schneider F., & Neville L., (eds.). Livestock in a changing landscape. Vol. 1., 18239-18238. During the next few decades, the global population will continue to grow, and an increasing part of that population will have the financial means to purchase more expensive food products. Based on predictions made by the FAO, the demand for animal-based products will almost double.^[7]FAO (2011) World Livestock 2011. Livestock in food security [Online]. Available from: www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2373e/i2373e.pdf [Accessed: 5 November 2018].

While people may eat meat for different reasons (for instance nutrition, a cultural or religious motivation, personal preference based on the sensory experience or because it is associated with wealth), the majority of humans consumes meat. How much and what kind of meat depends on many things like among others access to types of meat, financial means and social or moral convictions. Due to globalisation, eating habits are less confined to a specific region and an increasing number of people can afford meat.^[8]FAO (2016). Fishery and aquaculture statistics [Online]. Available from: www.fao.org/fishery/static/Yearbook/YB2016_USBcard/booklet/web_i9942t.pdf [Accessed: 5 November 2018].

Health Concerns

With an increasing population and a growing demand for meat, humans and animals will continue to live in close proximity to one another. This proximity will increase the chances of disease outbreaks and a rapid spread of disease between species.^[9]FAO/OIE/WHO Joint Scientific Consultation (2010) Influenza and other emerging zoonotic diseases at the human-animal interface [Online]. Available from: www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/I1963E_lowres.pdf [Accessed: 5 November 2018]. To prevent disease and to stimulate growth, animals are being given antibiotics, which can contribute to the increase of antibiotic-resistant bacteria that in turn cause illness in humans.^[10]Ventola, C.L. (2015) ‘The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats’, P & T : a peer-reviewed journal for formulary management, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 277.

Potential disease outbreaks are not the only health concerns regarding meat consumption. Several types of meat are suspected of causing adverse health effects and have been associated with the prevalence of certain cancers.^[11]World Cancer Research Fund (2018) Diet, nutrition, physical activity and colorectal cancer [Online]. Available from: www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Colorectal-cancer-report.pdf [Accessed: 5 November 2018]. Though one could argue that a person most often has the option to choose to consume meat or not, it is of value to note that the demand for a type of food that has been associated with the increase of specific types of cancer, is being consumed at an increasing rate.

Animal Suffering and Environmental Impact

Animals are bred in ways that keep costs low and profits as high as possible. While not a consideration for everyone, animal welfare is something many consumers and policymakers consider and animal-based products often, if not always, go hand in hand with animal suffering.^[12]Potts, A. (ed). (2016) ‘Meat Culture’. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

When breeding large numbers of animals, not only animal suffering is common. A lot of waste is also produced.^[13]Potts, A. (ed). (2016) ‘Meat Culture’. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.^[14]Bujak, J.W. 2015, ‘New insights into waste management – Meat industry’, Renewable Energy, vol. 83, pp. 1174-1186. The type of waste ranges from animal waste like manure to by-products such as greenhouse gasses and everything in between. All these waste streams, however, have an impact on the environment.^[15]Oba, G.,  Steinfield, H., Mooney, H.A., Schneider, F. and Neville, L. E. (2011). ‘Livestock in a changing landscape: Drivers, consequences, and responses’ in Gerber, P., Mooney, H. A., Dijkman, J., Tarawali, S. and de Haan, C. (eds.). Experiences and Regional perspectives Vol. 2. Island Press 1-7. It is not just waste streams that make an alternative to meat attractive from an environmental point of view. The strain on the available resources is of interest as well. The water and land used to grow feed could also be used to directly nourish the world’s population.^[16]Deutsch, Lisa & Falkenmark, Malin & Gordon, Line & Rockström, Johan & Folke, Carl (2010). ‘Water-mediated ecological consequences of intensification and expansion of livestock production’ in Steinfeld, H., Mooney, H., Schneider, F. (eds.). Livestock, Environment and Development Initiative — LEAD at FAO, SCOPE program on Consequences of Industrialized Animal Production Systems, and the Swiss College of Agriculture. Vol. 1. Island Press, 97-110.^[17]Potts, A. (ed). (2016) ‘Meat Culture’. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

Meat alternatives

Several alternatives to meat are available. A well-known alternative is a plant-based protein, made from high protein plants like beans, grains, vegetables, nuts, seeds and soy products.^[18]FDA (2016) Nutrition Facts Label [Online]. Available from: www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/InteractiveNutritionFactsLabel/#protein [Accessed: 5 November 2018]. When producing plant-based alternatives, the strain on the environment is much smaller. According to Pimentel and Pimentel, the average amount of fossil energy input that is required for all animal protein being produced is more than 11 times greater than that for grain protein production.^[19]Pimentel, D. & Pimentel, M. (2003) ‘Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment’, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 660S-663S. Aside from plant-based alternatives, there are more options with a lower environmental impact. Other dairy products and seafood, for instance, can be consumed to substitute protein intake from meat.^[20]FDA (2016) Nutrition Facts Label [Online]. Available from: www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/InteractiveNutritionFactsLabel/#protein [Accessed: 5 November 2018].

Easy Meatless Dinner Wraps

Lab-grown meat

An alternative that is still under development is cultured meat, also known as lab-grown meat. Because the research is still in its early stages, there are, as of yet, no standards for producing cultured meat.^[21]Arshad, M.S., Javed, M., Sohaib, M., Saeed, F., Imran, A. & Amjad, Z. (2017) ‘Tissue engineering approaches to develop cultured meat from cells: A mini-review’, Cogent Food & Agriculture, vol. 3, no. 1. Methods that are currently most successful use a technology that stimulated animal stem cells to develop into muscle cells.^[22]Stephens, N., Di Silvio, L., Dunsford, I., Ellis, M., Glencross, A. & Sexton, A. (2018) ‘Bringing cultured meat to market: Technical, socio-political, and regulatory challenges in cellular agriculture’, Trends in Food Science & Technology, vol. 78, pp. 155-166. While the initially grown muscle meat does not have the sensory experience of meat from a real-life animal, researchers are working on improving these aspects by for instance adding fat tissue that will influence the taste and structure of the synthetic meat.^[23]Mattick, C.S., Landis, A.E., Allenby, B.R. & Genovese, N.J. (2015) ‘Anticipatory Life Cycle Analysis of In Vitro Biomass Cultivation for Cultured Meat Production in the United States’, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 49, no. 19, pp. 11941-11949.

Uncertainties

There are still many uncertainties surrounding lab-grown meat, and it is difficult to predict all the potential risks that will arise once synthetic meat will become part of the human diet. A new method of producing meat will require strict monitoring and new laws and regulations to minimise the risks involved will have to be created.

Aside from the mentioned uncertainties, the sensory aspects like smell, mouthfeel and flavour of cultured meat are not close to the experience consumers are having when consuming regular meat.^[24]Bhat, Z.F., Kumar, S. & Fayaz, H. (2015) ‘In vitro meat production: Challenges and benefits over conventional meat production’, Journal of Integrative Agriculture, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 241-248.

Because lab-grown meat is still in the developmental stage, it is difficult to predict what the environmental footprint for large-scale production would be. Several studies have tried to estimate the environmental impact, and results have shown a reduction regarding the environmental burden when compared to traditional beef production.^[25]Tuomisto, H.L. & Teixeira De Mattos, M. Joost (2011) ‘Environmental impacts of cultured meat production’, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 45, no. 14, pp. 6117-6123.^[26]Alexander, P., Brown, C., Arneth, A., Dias, C., Finnigan, J., Moran, D. & Rounsevell, M.D.A. (2017) ‘Could consumption of insects, cultured meat or imitation meat reduce global agricultural land use?’, Global Food Security, vol. 15, pp. 22-32.^[27]Mattick, C.S., Landis, A.E., Allenby, B.R. & Genovese, N.J. (2015) ‘Anticipatory Life Cycle Analysis of In Vitro Biomass Cultivation for Cultured Meat Production in the United States’, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 49, no. 19, pp. 11941-11949.

Is Cultured meat a solution?

Status Quo

Currently, a lot of food is wasted in all stages of the meat production chain.^[28]Potts, A. (ed). (2016) ‘Meat Culture’. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Waste valorisation and recycling can be implemented to create a more efficient and streamlined meat production process. Not just in the pre-consumer production chain, but also on the consumer end, improvements can be made.^[29]Secondi, L., Principato, L. & Laureti, T. (2015) ‘Household food waste behaviour in EU-27 countries: A multilevel analysis’, Food Policy, vol. 56, pp. 25-40. Globally, a better distribution of nutrition is essential. While in parts of the world animal-based products are being wasted and thrown away, in other parts of the world, these same nutrients are missing from diets, and people are malnourished.^[30]Westhoek, H., Lesschen, J.P., Rood, T., Wagner, S., De Marco, A., Murphy-Bokern, D., Leip, A., van Grinsven, H., Sutton, M.A. & Oenema, O. (2014) ‘Food choices, health and environment: Effects of cutting Europe’s meat and dairy intake’, Global Environmental Change, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 196-205.

Global Differences

Depending on where a population is studied, their main sources of dietary protein differs. In Europe, the main sources of protein are meat and dairy.^[31]European Environment Agency (2017) Food consumption – animal based protein [Online]. Available from: www.eea.europa.eu/airs/2017/resource-efficiency-and-low-carbon-economy/food-consumption-animal-based [Accessed: 5 November 2018] In Asia, the main sources for protein include nuts, legumes and insects.^[32]Van Estrick, P. (2008) ‘Food Culture in Southeast Asia‘. Greenwood. Due to global differences regarding culture, socio-economic status, finances and religion, it is not possible to make a statement regarding cultured meat that will apply globally. In some areas of the world, cultured meat might be a great alternative, while in others, it will not be accepted. For this reason, it is important to not just look at cultured meat to provide the solution to the future protein intake problem.

Solutions

Alternatives to meat consumption that suit the geographic area can be implemented, and when possible, solutions from other geological areas can be introduced. For instance, more vegetarian alternatives can be offered, preferred consumption of animal-based products can shift to eggs and dairy, and when done right, insect-based foods can be introduced.^[33]Oonincx, Dennis G. A. B., Itterbeeck, J.v., Marcel J W Heetkamp, Henry van den Brand, Joop J A van Loon & Huis, A.v. (2010) ‘An Exploration on Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Production by Insect Species Suitable for Animal or Human Consumption’, PLoS One, vol. 5, no. 12, pp. e14445.^[34]Mattick, C.S., Landis, A.E., Allenby, B.R. & Genovese, N.J. (2015) ‘Anticipatory Life Cycle Analysis of In Vitro Biomass Cultivation for Cultured Meat Production in the United States’, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 49, no. 19, pp. 11941-11949.

It is difficult to predict behaviour when it comes to food trends that might be relevant in several decades, the time when cultured meat will potentially be marketable.  Aside from trends, many other factors will play a role in what people will choose to consume. More informed people may be aware of potential adverse health effects of beef and thus willing to try alternatives. With more disposable income, consumers will feel comfortable spending more money on food and make changes regarding their food choices. In short; it is not just the technological possibilities and environmental benefits that determine how marketable cultured beef is. Consumers need to be willing to consume it, and until then, steps can be taken in other areas of the food production chain to mitigate the future protein intake quandary.

Did you enjoy this article? Please share it or leave a comment and follow Truthful Food on social media so that you won’t miss out on anything new! Are looking for a healthier way to eat? Check out my [Truthful Living Food] article and my [Truthful Living Menu Recipes]!